The term ‘biodiversity’ refers to ‘the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur’. If you observe a patch of forest, you may find a wide variety of plant and animal life. The plant life may range form a small herb to a large tree, and animal life may vary from a tiny insect to a large mammal. Apart from plants and animals, numerous microorganisms, which cannot be seen with naked eyes also occur in the soil. This shows biological diversity or biodiversity of a forest patch. Thus, biodiversity can be defined as ‘the totality of genes, species and ecosystem of a region’
Biodiversity differs from place to place as each habitat has its distinct biota. However, many biologically rich and unique habitats are being destroyed, degraded and fragmented.
The major factors that tend to decrease biodiversity are increasing human population, higher resource consumption and pollution. Loss of biodiversity reduces gene pool of species, number of interactions in the biota and ability of species to adapt themselves to changes in the environment. It not only checks evolutionary advancements but also put the surviving species to dangers of extinction.
(1) Magnitude of biodiversity : Biologists are enganged in the identification and naming of species for the last 250 years. Still, they are able to name and describe for less number of species than the actual number present. Presently, the known and described number of species of all organisms on the earth is between 1.7 and 1.8 million, which is fewer than 15% of the actual number. It is predicted that the number of total species varies from 5 to 50 million. Approximately 61% of the known species are insects. About 2,70,000 species of plants and only 4650 species of mammals are known to science. Only fragmentary information is available about bacteria, viruses, protists and Archaea. The major area where numerous species are believed to be unknown to science are tropics and coral reefs.
Presently, efforts are being made to discover and describe new species more rapidly. The projects like ‘Global Biodiversity Information Facility and the Species 2000’, are attempting to discover new species faster than ever before.
(2) Levels of biodiversity : The biological diversity include three interrelated hierarchical levels, viz. Genetic diversity, Species diversity and Community and ecosystem diversity.
(i) Genetic diversity : It is the diversity in the number and types of genes as well as chromosomes present in different species and the variations in the genes and their alleles in the same species. For instance, the number of genes is about 450-700 in Mycoplasma, 4000 in Escherichia coli, 13000 in Drosophila melanogaster, 32000-50000 in Oryza sativa and 35000 to 45000 in Homo sapiens sapiens.
‘The genetic variation existing within a species is called genetic diversity’. The genetic variation may be in alleles (different variants of same genes), in entire genes (the traits determining particular characteristies) or in chromosomal structures.
Genetic diversity is useful in adaptation to changes in environmental conditions. It helps in speciation or evolution of new species. Lower genetic diversity within a species or variety may be useful for uniformity in yield as well as higher yield. However, it is liable to undergo degradation and prone to mass scale destruction at the hands of fungal or insect attacks.
(ii) Species diversity : It is the variety in the number and richness of the species of a region. The number of species per unit area is called species richness. Number of individuals of different species represent species evenness or species equitability. Communities where species are represented by more or less equal number of individuals exhibit evenness. Others where one or more species have more individuals than others show dominance or unevenness. Species diversity is product of both species richness or evenness or equitability, i.e., species richness weighed by species evenness.
Odum et al (1960) calculate species diversity (d) as number of species per thousand individuals while Menhinick (1964) calculates it as number of species in relation to square root of total number of individuals. Diversity index commonly used in ecological studies is Shannon index.
(iii) Community and ecosystem diversity : Community diversity refers to the variations in the biological communities in which species live. There are three perspectives of diversity at the level of community. These are alpha diversity, beta diversity and gamma diversity.
(a) Alpha diversity (a-index Diversity, Within-Community Diversity) : It indicates diversity within the community. It refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same community or habitat. A combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to represent diversity within a community or habitat.
(b) Beta diversity (b-index Diversity, Between-Community Diversity) : It is biodiversity which appears in a range of communities due to replacement of species with the change in community/habitat due to presence of different microhabitats, niches and difference in environmental conditions.
(c) Gamma diversity (g-index Diversity) : It refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total land scape or geographical area.
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variation in the structure and functions of the ecosystem. It describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological processes that sustain energy flow, food webs and the recycling of nutrients. It has focus on various biotic interactions and the role and function of keystone species (Species determining the ability of large number of other species to persist in the community). Diversity helps in producing more productive and stable ecosystems/communities which can tolerate various stresses like prolonged drought.
(3) Gradients of biodiversity : Biodiversity is not uniform on the earth. It varies with change in latitude or altitude. Biodiversity increase, when we move from high to low latitude (i.e. from the poles to the equator). The temperate region has severe climate with short growing period for plants. On the other hand tropical region has favourable conditions for the growth throughout the year. The favourable environmental conditions favour speciation (i.e. origin of new species) and make it possible for a larger number of species to occur and grow. Therefore, tropical regions are rich in biodiversity.
Similarly, the species diversity decreases from lower to higher altitude on a mountain. The temperature drops about 6.5oC with increase in altitude by 1000 m. The drop in temperature and greater seasonal variability at higher altitudes are the two major factors that reduce diversity.
It should not be confused with complexity and heterogenecity of the physical environment which tends to increase complexity and diversity of flora and fauna of an area.
(4) Benefits of biodiversity : Biodiversity provides numerous direct and indirect services to human beings, e.g., :
(i) Diversity of plants and animals provide a vast variety of foods and fabrics.
(ii) Maintenance of ecological balance or ecosystems stability.
(iii) Preserving biodiversity provides economic benefits which include improving the desirable characteristics of crops, making plants more pest resistant, providing medicines to treat and curve illness, supporting ecotourism and providing enjoyment to individuals.
(iv) Biodiversity enriches the lives of people in industrialized world and developed countries provides the means of survival to people in developing countries.
(5) Threats to biodiversity
(i) Destruction of habitats : Destruction of natural habitat is the primary threat to the biodiversity. Natural habitats, which protect natural flora and fauna are being converted to human settlements, harbours, dams, reservoirs, crop-lands, grazing grounds and mining sites. Deforestation deprive animal life of shelter and food. This decreases the population of many species. Migratory animals are also affected by deforestation because of the disturbance in their routes. Some of the dams are blocking, spawning and migration of fishes by inundating the habitats and by changing the physical environment. Sometimes human cleanliness destroy the habitat of scavengers such as vultures, kites, etc. The California condor (Cathartes californianus) a shy scavanger, which is the largest flying bird of today, has been severely affected by human cleanliness.
(ii) Disturbance and degradation of habitats : They are of two types, natural and man-made. Natural disturbance and degradation are caused by spontaneous jungle fire, pest infestation, defoliation by insects, locust attack, etc. Man-made disturbance and degradation are more severe. They include felling of trees, use of fire for clearing forest areas, collection of litter, and over-exploitation for other economically important products. Disturbance and degradation result in loss of biodiversity.
(iii) Pollution : The most subtle form of habitat degradation is environmental pollution. Pollution may reduce and eliminate populations of sensitive species. The populations of fish eating birds and falcons have declined due to excessive use of pesticides in crop fields. Lead poisoning is another major cause of mortality of many aquatic birds like ducks, swans and cranes. These birds often swallow the spent shotgun pellets that fall into lakes and marshes. The nutrient enrichments (eutrophication) also drastically reduce biodiversity.
(iv) Introduction of exotic species : New species entering a geographical region are called exotic or alien species. Introduction of exotic species may cause significant loss to the biological communities. The great majority of the exotic species do not become established in the introduced new places. However, some of the species are able to establish in new area. Such successful exotic species may kill or eat native species to the point of extinction, or may so alter the habitat that many natives are no longer able to persist. Island ecosystems are most vulnerable due to small size and small number of species.
A few examples of introduction of exotic species and their effects are : (a) Introduction of Nile perch (an exotic predatory fish) into lake Victoria (South Africa) threatened the entire ecosystem of the lake by eliminating several native species of the small Cichlid fish species that were endemic to this fresh water ecosystem. (b) In several tropical countries including India, water hyacinth (A free floating exotic water weed) clogs rivers and lakes, and threatens the survival of many aquatic species in lakes and rivers. (c) Lantana camara (An exotic shrub) strongly competes with the native species and eliminate many of them. The exotic shrub has invaded many forests in different parts of our country.
(6) Extinction of species : The most serious aspect of the loss of biodiversity is the extinction of species. Once a species goes extinct, its chances for further evolution are lost. A species is considered extinct, when no member of the species remains alive anywhere in the world. If individuals of a species remain alive only in captivity or other human-controlled conditions, the species is said to be extinct in the wild. In both of these situations, the species would be considered globally extinct.
A species is considered to be ecologically extinct, if it persists at such reduced numbers that its effects on other species in its community are negligible. Extinction is a natural process.
Types of extinction : Species become extinct through three types of extinction processes.
(i) Natural extinction : It is the extinction of species slowly from the earth due to change in environmental conditions. Some species disappear and the others which are more adapted to changed conditions, take their place. Many species have lost in the geological past by natural extinction. The extinction of species in the geological past is also called background extinction.
(ii) Mass extinction : It refers to the extinction of large number of species due to catastrophe. There have been several periods in the earth’s geological history, when large number of species became extinct because of catastrophes. Mass extinction occurred in millions of years.
(iii) Anthropogenic extinction : They are extinctions abetted by human activities like settlements, hunting, over exploitation and habitat destruction. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre has found out that since 1600 A.D., the earth has lost 533 animal species (mostly vertebrates) and 384 plant species (mostly flowering plants). 75% of these extinctions are caused by direct human interference. It is almost documented that Dodo (Raphus cucullatus) and Taswania Wolf (Thylacinus cyanocephalus) have been hunted to extinction by humans.
(7) Susceptibility of extinction : All species are not equally susceptible to extinction. The characteristics which make a species susceptible to extinction are listed below
(i) Large body size e.g. Bengal tiger, lion and elephant.
(ii) Small population size and low reproductive rate e.g. Blue whale and Giant Panda.
(iii) Feeding at high tropic levels in the food chain e.g. Bengal tiger and Bald eagle.
(iv) Fixed migratory routes and habit. e.g. Blue whale and whooping crane.
(v) Localized and narrow range of distribution. e.g. Woodland caribou and Island species.
(8) Red data book and IUCN : IUCN is International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources which is now called World Conservation Union (WCU). It has its headquarters at Morges, Switzerland. It maintains a red data book or red list which is a catalogue of taxa facing risk of extinction. Threatened species is the one which is liable to become extinct if not allowed to realise its full biotic potential by providing protection from exotic species/human exploitation/habitat deterioration/depletion of food. Red data book or red list was initiated in 1963.
Table : 9.7-1 Red list has eight categories
SN
Red list category
Definition
(1)
Extinct
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. e.g. Dodo.
(2)
Extinct in the wild
A taxon is Extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitats, have failed to record an individual.
(3)
Critically endangered
A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. e.g.Sus salvanius (Pigmy hog) Berberis nilghiriensus.
(4)
Endangered
A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future. e.g.Ailurus fulgens (Red panda), Blue whale, Largest Lemur Idri-Idri of Madagascar, etc.
(5)
Vulnerable
A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered, but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future. e.g.Antilope cervicapra (Black Buck).
(6)
Lower risk
A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated and does not satisfy the criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable.
(7)
Data deficient
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction.
(8)
Not evaluated
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been assessed.
Out of these, four categories of species are included threatened species – critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable and lower risk species. Two more categories are also added to them. They are (i) Rare Species (R): They are species with naturally small population, either localised or thinly scattered, which are always at risk from pests/pathogens/predators/exotic species. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monochus schauinslandii). Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps). (ii) Indeterminate Species : The species are in danger of extinction but the reason is not known, e.g., 3-banded Armadillo of Brazil, Short Eared Rabbit of Sumatra, Mexican Prairie Dog.
The main objectives of Red lists are listed below :
(i) Identification and documentation of endangered species.
(ii) Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity.
(iii) Developing awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity.
(iv) Defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action.
(9) Conservation of biodiversity : Conservation of biodiversity is protection, uplift and scientific management of biodiversity so as to maintain it at its optimum level and derive suitainable benefit for the present as well as future strategies.
Conservation strategies: There are two basic strategies of biodiversity conservation – in-situ (on site) and ex-situ (off site).
(i) In-situ conservation : It is protection and management of important components of biological diversity through a network of protected areas.
(a) Protected areas : They are ecological/biogeographical areas where biological diversity alongwith natural and cultural resources are protected, maintained and managed through legal or other effective measures. National Parks and Wild life Sactuaries are the examples of protected areas. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) has recognised 37,000 protected areas around the world. As of September 2002, India has 581 protected areas (89 National parks and 492 Wildlife Sanctuaries). These areas cover 4.7 per cent of the land surface as against 10 per cent internationally suggested norm. The protected areas provide following benefits.
Maintain viable populations of all native species and sub-species.
Maintain the number and distribution of communities and habitats, and conserve the genetic diversity of all the present species.
Prevent man made introduction of alien species.
Make it possible for species/habitats to shift in response to environmental changes.
(b) Biosphere reserves : The Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme of UNESCO formulated the concept of Biosphere in 1975, which deals with conservation of ecosystems and genetic resources contained therein. “The Biosphere Reserves are a special category of protected areas of land/or coastal environments, wherein people are an integral component of the system’. These are representative examples of natural biomes and contain unique biological communities.
A biosphere reserve has three zones :
Core or natural zone : It comprises an undisturbed and legally protected ecosystem.
Buffer zone : It surrounds the core area, and is managed to accommodate a greater variety of resource use strategies, and research and educational activities.
Transitional zone or manipulation zone : It is the outer most part of the biosphere reserve. It serves as an area of active cooperation between reserve management and the local people, wherein activities like settlements, cropping, forestry and recreation and other economic uses continue in harmony with conservation goals.
Importance of biosphere reserve
Restoration : Biosphere reserves help in restoration of degraded ecosystems and habitats.
Conservation : Biosphere reserves ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic resources. These reserves also encourage the traditional resource use.
Development : The biosphere reserves promote culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable economic development.
Scientific research, monitoring and education : The biosphere reserves provide support for research monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development.
(c) Sacred forests and Scared lakes : Sacred forests are forest patches around places of worship which are held in high esteem by tribal communities. They are the most undisturbed forest patches (Island of pristine forests) which are often surrounded by highly degraded landscapes. They are found in several parts of India, e.g., Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya, Temples built by tribals are found surrounded by Deodar forests in Kumaon region, Jaintias and Khasias in Meghalaya. Not a single branch is allowed to be cut from these forests. As a result many endemic species which are rare or have become extinct elsewhere can be seen to flourish here. Similarly aquatic flora and fauna is also protected in sacred water bodies. e.g. Khaeheopalri lake in Sikkim.
(ii) Ex-situ conservation : It is conservation of selected rare plants/animals in places outside their natural homes. Ex situ conservation includes offsite collections and gene banks.
(a) Offsite collections : They are live collections of wild and domesticated species in botanical gardens, zoos, arboreta, etc. Currently, there are more than 1500 botanical gardens and arboreta (Gardens with trees and shrubs) having more than 80,000 species. Many of them have seed banks, tissue culture facilities and other ex-situ technologies. The number of zoos/zoological parks is more than 800. They have about 3000 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. Most of them have well managed captive breeding programmes.
Therefore, offsite collections can be used to restock depleted populations, reintroduce species in the wild and restore degraded habitats.
(b) Gene banks : A gene bank or germ plasm bank is an institution where valuable plant material is preserved in a viable condition. These are stored either in the form of seeds or dormant vegetative organs or in the form of frozen gametes.
Seed banks : Plant germplasm in live state is the viable seed. In a seed the embryo is present in a dormant state. The moisture contents of seeds is kept low (5-15%) and they are stored at low temperature (–10oC to –20oC) with supply of little oxygen. With these conditions there is reduced enzyme activity and reduced respiration. From time to time at definite intervals these seeds are sown to produce new plants and fresh seeds are obtained. Such seeds are called Orthodox seeds as they can withstand the reduction in moisture and prolonged exposure to low temperature. Seeds of trees and shrubs usually get killed on drying and freezing. Such seeds are called Recalcitrant seeds g., tea, litchi. In such cases plants are kept in orchards and maintained through in-situ conservation.
Orchards : Plants with recalcitrant seeds are grown in orchards where all possible strains and varieties are maintained, g., litchi, oil Palm, rubber tree, etc.
Tissue Culture : It is carried out through callus formation, embryoids, pollen grain culture and shoot tip culture for those plants which are either seedless, have recalcitrant seeds, variable seed progeny or where clone is to be maintained. The method is useful in maintaining a large number of genotypes in small area, rapid multiplication of even endangered species and for hybrid rescue. Shoot tip culture maintains virus free plants. It is used for international exchange of germplasm in vegetatively multiplied cultivars, g., banana, potato.
Cryopreservation : Preservation at –196oC (liquid nitrogen) can maintain tissue culture, embryos, animal cells/tissues, spermatozoa indefinitely. The cryopreserved material is revived through special technique when required.
(10) Hot spots of biodiversity : They are the areas with high density of biodiversity or megadiversity which are also the most threatened one. To designate priority areas for in situ conservation, Norman Myers developed the ‘hot spots’ concept in 1988. ‘The hot spots are the richest and the most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth’.
Ecologically hot spots are determined by four factors. (i) Number of species/species diversity. (ii) Degree of endemism. (iii) Degree of threat to habitat due to its degradation and fragmentation. (iv) Degree of exploitation.
Over the world 25 terrestrial hot spots have been identified for the conservation of biodiversity. Out of these 15 hot spots have tropical forests, 5 occur in Mediterranian-type zones and 9 hot spots are present in tropics. The hot spots together occupy 1.4 per cent of the earth’s land area. About 20 per cent of the human population lives in the hot spots.
Hot spots in India : Out of the 25 hot spots of the world, two are found in India. These are Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas, and these extend to the neighboring countries also. These areas show high degree of endemism and are inhabited by a wide variety of flowering plants, swallow tailed butterflies, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
(i) Western Ghats : It lies parallel to the Western Coast of Indian peninsula for almost 1600 km, spread over in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The evergreen forests are found at low elevation (i.e. 500 m above mean sea level), whereas semi-evergreen forests occur at 500-1500 m height. The two main centres of biological diversity are : (i) the Agastryamalai hills and Silent valley and (ii) the new Amambalam Reserve.
(ii) Eastern Himalaya : It extend to the north eastern India and Bhutan. Many deep and semi isolated valleys are found in this region. These valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic plant species. There occur temperate forests at altitudes of 1780 to 3500 m in this region. The eastern Himalaya is an active centre of evolution and exhibits a rich diversity of flowering plants. Numerous primitive angiosperm families (e.g., Magnoliaceae and Winteraceae) and primitive genera of plants like Magnolia and Betula and found in this region.
(11) International efforts for conserving biodiversity : Earth summit of Rio de Janeiro (1992), Brazil, promoted Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) which was signed by 152 nations. Its recommendations came into effect on 29th Dec. 1993. India became a party to this Convention on Biological Diversity in May, 1994.
The convention has three key objectives
(i) Conservation of biological diversity
(ii) Sustainable use of biodiversity
(iii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
A number of projects for the conservation and appropriate development of Biosphere Reserves, are being supported by the World Conservation Union and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
(12) Biodiversity conservation in India : India is a centre of rich biological diversity and has contributed significantly of the global biodiversity.
India is a home land of 167 cultivated species and 320 wild relatives of crop plants. It is a centre of diversity of animal species (e.g. zebu, mithun, chicken, water buffalo, camel); crop plants (e.g. edible diascoreas, alocasia, colocasia); species and condiments (e.g., cardamom, black pepper, ginger, turmeric), bamboos, brassicas and tree cotton. India also represents a secondary centre of domestication for some animals (e.g. horse, goat, sheep, cattle, yak and donkey) and plants (e.g. tobacco, potato and maize).
Because of the abundant diversity present in the country, its conservation is very important not only for the country but also for the rest of the world. Both in situ and ex situ conservation measures are being undertaken.
The National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and other protected areas maintained by the Ministry of Environment and Forests provide in situ conservation of biodiversity. The joint forest management systems involve forest departments and local communities to enable tribal and local people to have access to non-wood forest products (such as lac, silk, honey, wax, tendu leaves, etc.) and at the same time protect the forest resources.
Major ex situ conservation of biodiversity is being managed by National Bureau of Plant, Animal and Fish Genetic Resources. There is an International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hydrabad for conserving germplasm of Groundnut, Pigeon Pea, Chick Pea, Pearl Millet and Sorghum. A number of other centres in India are maintaining hundred and thousands of present and past varieties of crop plants. Thus germplasms of plants and animals are being conserved in vitro in gene/seed banks, field gene banks, botanical gardens and zoological gardens. Being spread over different parts of the country, the various institutes are conserving regional variants of all types of important plants and animals.
Wild life conservation
Wild animal means any non-domesticated animal found wild in nature. It includes both vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) and invertebrates (bees, butterflies, moths, crustaceans, etc.) the term “wild life” includes animals as well as plants, which from part of any habitat in nature. Some wild animals are so characteristic that they become symbols of their home countries. Thus, tiger is associated with India, white bear with Russia, Giant Panda with China, kangaroo with Australia, kiwi with New Zealand and springbok with South Africa.
(1) Importance (Values) of Wild Life : Wild life is a source of danger to human life. It is a nuisance to a farmer because it often destroys his crops. The domestic livestock is denied grazing ground in sanctuaries and reserves for wild life. Similarly, the hunters are denied recreation by shooting wild life. Even then conservation of wild life becomes necessary and of great importance due to its many values to mankind.
(i) Ecological value : For a millennium, man and wild animals have evolved together on this planet, called Earth. All life on earth is one and all living things are inextricably interlinked (food chains) forming ecosystems. Destruction of wild life may cause upset in the ecological balance or equilibrium resulting in severe consequences. Thus, protection of every animal species is of great importance to the quality of life and to the survival of man himself. By rendering the planet uninhabitable for animals, we will not be able to avoid extinction ourselves.
(ii) Commercial value : Wild life forms an important natural resource. Unlike coal or petroleum which is nonrenewable, wild life is a renewable resource. With proper care and management, it can yield good dividends and even earn foreign exchange. The commercial value of wild life is best seen in the world’s marine fisheries, with an annual output of about 100 million tons of sea food worth billions of rupees.
Freshwater fish and other aquatic creatures also provide large amount of food for people. Wild life of dry land mainly contributes to the food of the so-called primitive people of the world. An entire industry, the fur trade is supported by fur-bearing animals. Trade in live as well as dead animals supports thousands of people and also earns foreign exchange.
For example, an Indian rhino may fetch equivalent of Rs. 1,25,000 in the world market. Similarly, the ivory of elephants, the horns of rhinoceros, the glands of must deer, the antlers of deer etc., all command high prices. Wild life of a country may even attract people from abroad and earn foreign exchange. Thus, the tourist industry of Kenya (East Afria), based on its wild life, ranks third after coffee and sisal.
(iii) Game value : Wild life has its worth as game also. In several European and American countries, millions of people hunt or fish for recreation, spending billions of dollars on these sports.
(iv) Scientific value : Scientific studies of many of the wild life species are of direct value to humans. Thus, sea urchins have helped greatly in the understanding of human embryology. A desert load has helped in early determination of pregnancy. Rhesus monkeys have contributed to the present knowledge of human blood groups. Antlers of deer help in determining the degree of radioactive contamination of natural environments. We do not know when some obscure wild animal species may be shot to prominence by providing a clue to human health and survival.
(v) Aesthetic value : There is a great world wide aesthetic value of wild life because of their sheer beauty and appeal to the human spirit. A world without melodious birds, graceful beasts and rupturous forests would be a poorer place for humans to live in. Without wild animals, a country side looks dead, static, monotonous and like a picture postcard. People feel pleasure, satisfaction and happiness in the presence of wild life.
(vi) Ethical value : Generally people think that they have no right to destroy wild animals; rather they feel an obligation for the conservation of nature and protection of wild life. In fact all religions preach a healthy respect and reverence for life and consider it wrong to take the life of an animal.
(2) Sanctuaries and National Parks :
(i) Definitions : One of the best methods to save a wild life species, which is on the road to extinction, is to put it in a special enclosure to reproduce. This is best illustrated by sanctuaries and national parks whose legal definition varies from country to country. A Sanctuary or a National Park may be defined “as an area, declared by statute, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wild life therein, or its natural environment, for their scientific, educational and recreational value.”
The difference between a sanctuary and a national park is subtle and even confusing. Hunting without permit is prohibited and grazing or movement of cattle regulated in a sanctuary. But hunting and grazing are absolutely prohibited in a national park which may be established within or outside a sanctuary.
(ii) Famous national park of world : The first national park in the world, the Yellostone National Park, was founded in 1872 in U.S.A. Since then, about 2,000 parks have been established all over the world. These offer protection to thousands of endangered species in their natural habitats. Some parks have been created for specific and very rare endangered species to be saved from extinction. Table provides a list of some of such famous parks of the world.
(iii) Indian sanctuaries and national parks : At present, 19 national parks and 202 sanctuaries are scattered throughout India. They comprise a total area of about 75,000 sq. km., which roughly comes to 19% of reserve forest area and 2.3% of total geographical area of the country. Sanctuaries and parks not only protect wild life but safeguard varied ecosystems, prevent soil erosion and help in recycling of wastes. Many of them are accessible to the Indian as well as foreign tourists and therefore of economic value. A glimpse of some important Indian national parks and sanctuaries is provided by the table.
Table. 9.7-2 : Famous National Parks of World Created for Specific Endangered Species
S. No.
Name of National Park
Country
Specific Endangered Animal
(1)
Alberta National Parks
Congo, Africa
Mountain Gorilla
(2)
Mt. Simien National Park
Ethiopia, Africa
Abyssinian Ibex or Steinbok
(3)
Bontebok National Park
South Africa, Africa
Bontebok antelope
(4)
Everglades National Park
Florida, U.S.A.
Puma
(5)
Rifugio di Los Padres
California, U.S.A.
Californian Condor
(6)
Ordesa National Park
Spain, Europe
Steinbok of pyrenees
(7)
Bialowieska National Park
Poland, Europe
Europian Bison
(8)
Corbett National Park
Uttar Pradesh, India
Kashmir Stag
(9)
Dachigam National Park
Kashmir, India
Kashmir Stag
(10)
Gir National Park
Gujarat, India
Asiatic Lion
(11)
Kaziranga National Park
Assam, India
One-homed Rhinoceros
(12)
Ghana bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National Park)
Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India
Avifauna
(3) Wild Life Conservation : A few voluntary organizations, like the Bombay Natural History Society (1883) have been involved in wildlife conservation in India since last century. Most of the British officers were fond of game hunting, but a few right-thinking officers who were concerned about the need for wildlife conservation wrote books about Indian wildlife and declared certain forests as protected areas. Mild legislative steps were also taken by the British Rule in 1873. However, an earnest effort for wildlife conservation through legislation was made only after independence. In 1952, the Central Government of India constituted the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) for advising the Government for conserving our varied and fascinating natural bounty of wildlife. Subsequently, State Wildlife boards were also constituted in several Indian states.
A comprehensive Wildlife (Protection) Act, enacted by the Central Government in 1972, provided for legal protection of our wildlife, for nationalisation of already declared reserves, for setting up of National Parks and Sanctuaries for this purpose, and for severe punishment to poachers. Another important legislative step was the 42nd Amendement in Indian Constitution empowering the Central Government to ensure wildlife protection and to acquire forests for this purpose. Later, the Forest (Conservation) Bill of 1980 forbade deforestation of any forest for non-forestry purpose without the permission of the Central Government. In the meanwhile, India also became an important signatory to several International bodies like the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), etc.
In accordance with the conservation strategies recommended by the World Convention of Conservationists mentioned earlier, wildlife conservation may be exsitu (i.e., in artificial habitats) or in situ (i.e., in natural habitats).
(i) Ex–Situ conservation in India :Ex–situ conservation requires establishment of rehabilitation centres for highly endangered species of wild animals. In accordance with the National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) of 1983, the activities of these centres include:
(a) to capture some individuals of concerned species from their natural habitats and bring these to the centre,
(b) to thoroughly study the feeding, breeding and other habits, and the diseases of these animals,
(c) to provide all facilities to these animals for captive breeding and healthy growth of their brood, and
(d) to release and rehabilitate the young ones of these animals after a certain safe age into their natural habitats.
Several rehabilitation centres have been established in various states all over the country during the past decade. For instance, the Uttar Pradesh Government has established a rehabilitation centre for Musk deer at Kanchula Kharak near Chamoli. Similarly, a big rehabilitation centre has been established in Kukrail forest near Lucknow with a comprehensive plan for rehabilitation of a number of wild animal types (swamp deer, chinkara, chausingha, black deer, foxes, wild dogs, jackal, wild fowls, falcon etc.). Rehabilitation of turtles and crocodiles has so far been achieved here.
(ii) In–Situ conservation in India :In–situ conservation requires protection of wild animals in their natural habitats. Obviously, it necessitates conservation of terrestrial and aquatic natural habitats of the wild animals. These habitats are, therefore, declared as prohibited reserves.
According to the degree of environmental protection afforded, we have four types of reserves in our country as follows :
(a) National Parks (N.Ps) : They are areas maintained by government and reserved for betterment of wildlife. Cultivation, grazing, forestry and habitat manipulation are not allowed. There are 89 national parks (66 in 1988) in India, occupying nearly 1.1% of geographical area. The first national park of India was Jim Corbett National Park (1936). Some early national parks of world are Yellowstone Park (USA) and Royal Park (near Sydney, Australia).
(b) Sanctuaries : A sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. Operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products and private ownership rights are allowed provided they do not affect the animals adversely. At present, there are 492 wild life sancturaries in our country covering over one lac square kilometres, i.e., about 3% of India geographical area.
(c) Tiger Reserves : Fast decreasing census of the Royal Bengal Tiger prompted the Indian Government in 1972 to declare the tiger as National Animal, and to launch a special “Project Tiger” to save this magnificent member of our natural bounty from extinction. The project was spearheaded in collaboration with World Wildlife Fund (WWF) with substantial financial help from this international body. Some of the national parks and sanctuaries were declared as special “Tiger Reserves” under this project by central legislation. These reserves are controlled by state governments, but funded by both central and state governments. Each reserve has a highly protected and strictly prohibited central, core area of about 300 or more sq. km., and a sizable, peripheral, buffer zone with permission of limited, conservation-oriented human activities. Originally, 9 reserves were declared, but 10 more have since been added. Besides tigers, these reserves are also protecting other threatened species. The 19 reserves are as follows :
Table 9.7-3 The National Parks and Sanctuaries of India
S. No.
Names
Location
Special characteristics
(1)
Corbett national Park
Around Ramganga river, Ramnagar, Dhikola, Distt. Nainital. U.P.
First and Finest N.P.; Richest in biodiversity of threatened species.
(2)
Manas National Park
Around Manas river, Barpeta Road, Assam,
Largest population of elephants. Hispid hare and pigmy hog are found only here.
(3)
Sunderbans National Park
Estuarine and highly saline marshy forest between Hoogly and Tetulia rivers in West Bengal.
Largest tiger population. World-famous man-eating tigers.
(4)
Palamu National Park
Around Koel river near Chhota Nagpur, Daltenganj, Bihar
Presence of tuskless male elephants is a speciality
(5)
Ranthambhor National Park
Around Aravali and Vindhyachal ranges, Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan
Smallest tiger reserve.
(6)
Melghat National Park
Near Tapti river, Ghaurilagarh hills, Maharashtra
—————
(7)
Kanha National Park
Around Sarpan river in Kanha valley,Mandla, Distt. Belaghat, Madhya Pradesh
Swamp deers or barahsingha are the jewels of this reserve.
(8)
Bandipur National Park
Between Negarhole, Wynad and Mudumalai parks along west coast, Karnataka
Known as best habitat for elephants.
(9)
Simlipal National Park
Around 12 rivers in Mayur Bhanj, Bihar
—————-
(10)
Namdapha National Park
Around 3 hill rivers, Miao Distt. Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh
Known for rare leopards. Easternmost abods of many threatened species
(4) Threatened Species : Species of wild animals whose normal survival upon the earth is jeoparadised due to their destruction or destruction of their habitats by human beings are called threatened species.
Threatened species in India about 81 species of wild mammals, about 30 wild birds, about 15 bird reptiles and amphibians and many invertebrates are presently on the verge of extinction. Some important animals are following.
(i) Wild mammals on the verge of extinction include the lion, tiger, wolves, jackals, foxes, bears, civets, loris, most species of monkeys, scaly anteater (manis), snow leopard, rhinoceros, wild ass, wild pigs, musk deer. Kashmir stag and several other species of deers, black buck and other species of antelopes, flying squirrels, dolphins, porcupine, gaur, wild sheeps and goats, Gibbon, elephant, wild buffalo, etc.
(ii) Wild birds of our fauna at the verge of extinction mainly include white-winged ducks, swans, falcon, sea eagle, bamboo partridge, mountain quail, Indian skimmer, painted spur fowls, hornbill, bustard, pheasant, Sarus crane, etc.
(iii) Wild reptiles on the verge of extinction include several species of turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, gharial, monitor lizard, and poisonous snakes and python.
(iv) Wild amphibians on the verge of extinction include viviparous toad and Himalayan newt.
Table : 9.7-5 List of Some Protected Indian Wild Life
Mammals
(1)
Bharal (Ovis nahura)
(2)
Bison or gaur or mithun (Bos gaurus)
(3)
Black buck (Antelope cervicapra)
(4)
Capped langur (Presbytis pileatus)
(5)
Caracal (Felis caracal)
(6)
Chinkara or Indian Gazelle (Gazellagazella bennetti)
(7)
Chital (Axis axis)
(8)
Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
(9)
Crab-eating macaque (Macaca irus umbrosa)
(10)
Fishing cat (Felis viverrina)
(11)
Flying squirrels (Petaurista, Eupetaurus, Belomys, Hylopetes. All species)
(12)
Four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis)
(13)
Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica)
(14)
Gaint squirrels (Ratufa macroura, R. indica, R. bicolor)
(15)
Golden cat (Felis temmincki)
(16)
Golden langur (Presbytis geei)
(17)
Gorals (Nemorhaedus goral, N.hodgsoni)
(18)
Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)
(19)
Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos)
(20)
Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex)
(21)
Himalayan crestless porcupine (Hystrix hodgsoni)
(23)
Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus)
(24)
Hoolock or gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)
(25)
Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)
(26)
Indian elephant (Elephas maximus)
(27)
Indian lion (Panthera leo persica)
(28)
Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)
(29)
Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur)
(30)
Indian wolf (Canis lupus)
(31)
Kashmir stag or hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu)
(32)
Leopard or panther (Panthera pardus)
(33)
Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis)
(34)
Lesser or red panda (Ailurus fulgens)
(35)
Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)
(36)
Loris (Loris tardigradus)
(37)
Malabar civet (Viverra megaspila)
(38)
Markhor (Capra falconeri)
(39)
Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus)
(40)
Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)
(41)
Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni)
(42)
Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)
(43)
Otters (Lutra lutra, L. perspicillata, Aonyx cinerea)
(44)
Pallas’s cat (Felis manul)
(45)
Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)
(46)
Pigmy hog (Sus sulvanius)
(47)
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
(48)
Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
(49)
Sambar (Cervus unicolor)
(50)
Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)
(51)
Slow loris (Nycticebus coucang)
(52)
Snow leopard (Panthera uncia)
(53)
Swamp deer or gond (Cervus duvauceli, all species)
(54)
Tibetan antelope or chiru (Panthelope hodgsoni)
(55)
Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilatus)
(56)
Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata)
(57)
Tibetan wild ass (Equus heminonus kiang)
(58)
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
(59)
Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
(60)
Wild dog or dhole (Cuon alpinus)
(61)
Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
(62)
Wild yak (Bosgrunniens)
Reptiles
(1)
Estuarine crocodile (crocodilus porosus)
(2)
Gharial (Gavialisgangeticus)
(3)
Leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
(4)
Marsh crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)
(5)
Monitor lizards (Varanus griseus, V. bengalensis, V. flavescens, V. salvator, V. nebulosus)
(6)
Pythons (Python molurus, P. reticulatus)
Birds
(1)
Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii)
(2)
Great Indian bustard (Choriostis nigriceps)
(3)
Great Indian hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
(4)
Jerdons’s courser (Cursorius bitorquatus)
(5)
Large falcons (Falco peregrinus, F. biarmicus, F. chicquera)
(6)
Mountain Quail (Oppassia superciliosa)
(7)
Peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
(8)
Pink-headed duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea)
(9)
Sclater’s monal (Lophophorussclateri)
(10)
Siberian white crane (Grus leucogeranus)
(11)
Tragopan pheasants (Tragopan species)
? Biological diversity day : 29th December
? Red Data Book : It is the compilation of data on species threatened with extinction.
? Green Data Book : A book containing a list of rare plants growing in protected areas like Botanical Gardens.
? Dodo bird (Didus ineptus) of Mauritius extensively killed due to its beautiful features.
? According to December 26th 1995 report, the “Red Panda Project” has been started to protect Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) endangered species from extinction in Himalayan region.
? Endemic species : A species found in a particular natural habitat only e.g., Ficus religiosa, Butea monosperma.
? Cheetah has recently become extinct from India. Only wild population of cheetah is found in Africa.
? Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is found only in India.
? Willian Hornday : Coined the term wildlife, wrote the book “Our Vanishing Wild life”..
? World Conservation Day : 3rd December.
? World Animal Day : 3rd October.
? Wild life Institute of India : Located at Dehradun (U.P.)
? SATYA : Save Tiger Youth Association
? Periyar wild life sanctuary is located at : Idduki (Kerala)
(a) Aseptate and multinucleate (b) Septate and multinucleate (c) Aseptate and uninucleate (d) Septate and uninucleate Answer. (b) The mycelium of Aspergillus consist of branch septate hyphae. Cells of hyphae are multinucleate. (184)
(a) Parenchyma (b) Chlorenchyma (c) Plectenchyma (d) Collenchyma Answer. (c) Plectenchyma (Pseudoparenchyma) is nothing but the interwoven mass of fungal mycelium which in cross-section look like parenchyma. (104)
(a) Colletotrichum falcatum (b) Phytophthora infestans (c) Potato mosiac virus (d) Alternaria solani Answer. (b) Late blight of potato is a seed born disease which is caused by Phytophthora infestans. The disease is characterised by brownish to blackish dead areas …
